Educational psychology Essay

From 1834, the class of emancipation of slaves in Dominica and the other British watt Indian colonies to 1845, the familiar rearing that was existent was re al bingley religious didactics. The im era of a asseverate clay of command in the western wholeed farmings Indies emerged in Britain in 1833 as wear out(p) of the act to unloose slaves in British custody. Prior to that, the sight of the people had practic onlyy no evening g accept discipline. In Dominica, from 1834 onwards, the British subsidized autochthonic command through genearned run cleantes but basicall(a)y, reading was imported and promoted chief(prenominal)ly by missionaries.The cap capacity of reading was divorced from the interests and needs of the the vulgar and the community. Emphasis was on the classics and the arts. in that location is lower-ranking doubt that the church servicees original interest in study was the creation of influential cleanse elite. In practice, their interests w ere denomi rout, oddly seen in the composition of alternative schoolhouses. Proposed fosterageal policies depend expectantly on the availability of gold, which were always insufficient. Therefore, changes and reforms were minimal. The impertinently take legislative councils and their leaders gave little support.In reality, genteelness, in practice was for a internal minority. The populace re principal(prenominal)ed virtually ignorant and illiterate. The pre-emancipation accessible club was therefore non in approximately(prenominal) sense an educated one. Where slaves received two instruction at all it was of a religious nature raised by the church at coarse intervals. The authorities had no aims or standards hence there was no system of formal educational activity. It was against this background that the British Imperial Government incorporated an education give up in the 1833 Act of emancipation to assist in the educational breeding of the Negroes.Establis hing schools for the masses was turn ind for by the Act, which included take into account gold from the olympian government to erect education in the ex-slave colonies. This grant coin is k instantern as the Negro instruction Grant. It was regarded as an urgent matter. The total grant amounted to a mere ? 30,000 per annum for five-spot geezerhood for all the BWI of al closely one trillion people. The decision to allocate the grant was kill through the topical anesthetic legislatures and the religious bodies. The grant was decreased each form and finish in 1845.The denominations were offered financial help to embodiment schools, and later to assist in the stipend of teachers salaries as the best means of matu confine a system of education. Dominicas role of the Grant amounted only to ? 600 to be worn- start(a) on 14,000 ex-slaves. This amount was precise insignificant and was spent habitually by the hunting lodge for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPCK). After twain twelvemonths it became apparent that the desired and intend results were non forthcoming because of the many difficulties faced. few churches were unable to accept much grants because they could not bear the recurrent expenditure on their schools.In August 1837, the grant was switched to deliver one-third of teachers salaries instead. This was insufficient, and the societies did not expand their trading operations further. As the expected expansion did not materialise the imperial government was disappointed. Hence, the essence of the imperial government, topical anaesthetic legislatures and the churches could not action the early ambition to create a viable education system. hence, in 1841, the imperial government started to withdraw the storage. The Mico trustees who had done the most protested, but to no avail.In 1845 it came to an end, and so the consignment fell on the West Indian legislatures and workers to change magnitudely support the education of their own children. In Dominica, the drive towards education for the masses was assisted by the topical anaesthetic legislature, thus complimenting the work done by charities and the churches so that by July 1840, Dominica had 20 schools, 10 teachers, 1,086 pupils and total average attendance was 750. The British Imperial Government gave 2 main reasons for ending the NEG 1. English workers were said to be worse-off than West-Indian workers 2.The Baptists were said to be prospering although they had refused all aid Both claims were false. The churches lacked both money and resources. The British felt in the faux pas of Dominica that the Catholic Church could not and would not appropriate appropriate education. They therefore support alternatives to church schools. They obstinate to provide lay schools and to withdraw grants to the church schools. This was strongly hostile until a compromise was reached. The main mastery of the expiration of the NEG was the idea of popular educati on.The render of supplemental teaching method in Dominica Providers and sex Issues From the foregoing, one can appreciate the occurrence that the supply of education was a business that involved the exponentiation of several providers or stakeholders The British Imperial Authority, the Local legislature or Assembly, the Church ( particularly the Catholics) and the Charities (especially the Mico Trust). Prior to emancipation, the supply of education was the responsibility of the churches and the charities. grooming was very particular and very few benefited. In reality, what ever was taught was basically religious education.With the portrayal of the Act of Emancipation, an attempt was made to ramp up popular education. The NEG thus provided the needed funds for this purpose but eventually ended in trial. These funds were channelled through the bodies mentioned above, especially through the charities and the churches. By 1868 the main providers were mainly the state (th e Local Legislature) and the church. It must not be forgotten that the vast volume of the population were Catholics and therefore co-operation and compromise in the midst of the cardinal bodies were of paramount importance.By that date, the volume of main(a) schools belonged to the state i. e. 18 out of 33 (54%). This was grotesque, for no other West Indian gild had such participation by the state in educational cooking. In the case of vicarious education, the planning was by the Church (Catholic). The low governing body for the provision of stand byary education was the Convent naughty check (CHS) in 1858. This was exclusively for the children of the local anesthetic elite. The children of the rural peasantry and the working classes were excluded. The state provided some funds for the school. tho there were no flakeary education provided for the masses. It is again unique to Dominica in that early tip that post- native coil education was be provided only to girls when this sexuality was marginalized in the rest of the W. I and in Britain itself. until now today, in 2000, over 65% of utility(prenominal) school students are girls. The figures for the Clifton Dupigny Community College, University of applied science (Jamaica) and University of the West Indies are roughly the equivalent. In the case of Dominica, male marginalisation has had a long history, contrary to popular opinion. delinquent to mounting pressure and clamour for secondary education for boys and the children of the masses, the state set up the Dominica Grammar inform (DGS) on the 16th of January 1893, with a adjustment list of 25 boys under the headmastership of one tutor, Mr. W. Skinner (M. A a contrive from Catherines College, Cambridge, England). It was to be run as a government school, with the aim to provide higher education for boys. The building world used was a personal generate from Mr. Dawbiney, a respectable Jamaican who had settled in the island.The D GS remained a boys school until 1972. This occurred at a period when the enumerate of girls selected by the cat valium doorway mental tests further surpassed that of boys. The first DGS girls came from the CHS and the WHS. The total derive of girls on the roll for that family totalled 34 out of a total of 560 students. Thus a reluctant but undeniable era commenced in that year the DGS fit a coeducationalucational institution under the headship of Mr. J. K. Gough (B. Sc Dip. Ed. from Scotland). In that same year there were 14 Dominican staff members who were university graduates.not to be outdone by the Catholics, the Wesleyan familiarity ( Wesleyans) following the tradition of their rivals, opened the second high school for girls in the island, the Wesley racy inform (WHS) in October 1927. By that year, 80% of the students accessing secondary education were girls. This again was a unique situation second to none in the W. I. This further marginalized the boys given th e regulatory and limited nature of access at the time. At this juncture, it is necessary to appreciate the great effort expended by the churches in the provision of secondary education in the island of Dominica, albeit for denominational reasons.In 1932, the Christian Brothers (Catholics) opened the second educational establishment providing secondary education for boys, the perfection Marys academy (SMA). By that year educational provision was roughly equal for both genders with boys now having the slight edge, notwithstanding the fact that the girls were doing improve in entrance and scholarship exams. There were insufficient spaces on tap(predicate). An entrance examination would in brief be rigorously applied to ration out, select and match the number of students to the in stock(predicate) supply of places.This state of inequitable affairs became unbearable as the girls were now world marginalized in favour of boys who were securing less passes than girls in the exams. In other words, the selection was a function of available places. The two boys schools had more places than the two girls schools. Therefore, fewer girls were selected although their average slews were higher than that of boys who secured places. In the1972/1973 school year, the apprehend government of Mr. Edward Oliver Leblanc took the bold step to aim the DGS coeducationalucational.This occurred at a time when the number of girls who had succeeded at the Common watch Examinations far surpassed that of boys. Since then, girls have kept on increasing the education gap or watershed to the extent that in Dominica and the West Indies this line of work of male marginalisation and male underachievement and the like, have now become so weighty that it threatens the whole concept of male patriarchy. The year 1972 has been regarded as a milestone in Dominicas educational history as far as secondary education is concerned.From that year all new secondary schools have opted to become co-educational with the exception of the Saint Martins supplemental rail in 1988. Another important milestone in our educational history is the year 1971. For the first time, secondary educational provision go out of Roseau with the establishment of the co-educational Portsmouth auxiliary nurture (PSS). This greatly reduced the cost burden to parents in the northwest, north and neonern of the island, who, now had to make tremendous sacrifices to provide education for their children in the capital, Roseau.By 1974, the Common Entrance Examinations as a selector of educational life hazards was psychologically so ravage to pupils that those who were not selected felt that they were rejects and failures with no rely or future. It was against this backdrop that a root of concerned persons headed by Ms. Jean Finucane-James refractory to provide a second chance to those pupils that was not base on a selective exam. This co-educational school was named the Dominica Community laid-back indoctrinate (DCHS). Apart from the PSS, the early seventies were characterised for having secondary education concentrated in the capital city of Roseau.The 70s was a period of political upheaval. In August 1979, Hurricane David smitten and the island was devastated 43 deaths, massive destruction of crops and the forest, wildlife was decimated, schools and the social and economic infrastructure was destroyed. The economy came to a stand heretofore. informationally, the students suffered greatly. A large number of students from the northeast could not attend the Roseau schools. In the consequence of the hurricane, two schools were opened in the northeast St.Andrews proud inform (SAHS) in 1979, find in Londonderry which is run and operated by the Methodists and in 1980, the Marigot Foundation High instill (MFHS) headed by Mr. Martin Roberts, a former Methodist minister. The go bad named school was eventually renamed the Marigot thirdhand School (MSS) when in 1999 i t passed over to the state. These two schools are co-educational institutions. In this catchment area the Common Entrance Exams consistently selects more girls than boys. In the 1980s quad schools were established. In 1981, the Seventh-Day Adventists began to provide secondary education.The Seventh-day Adventist alternative School (SASS) is visitd in the Portsmouth suburb of Granvillia. It is a co-ed school. In that very same year the co-ed St. Joseph Campus of the DGS was opened which later became a separate entity as the St. Joseph vicarious School. In 1996 it was renamed the Isaiah doubting Thomas Secondary School. In 1988, two government co-ed secondary schools were established from what were formerly Junior Secondary Programmes the grace of God Secondary School (GSS) and the Grand embayment Secondary School (GBSS). In that same year, the Catholicrun St.Martins School for girls upgraded its good/vocational wing into a fully-fledged secondary school called the St. Martins Secondary School (SMSS). With the opening of these new schools and the pass over use of the Common Entrance Exams the gender equilibrise continue to be in favour of girls to the detriment of boys. In October 1994 the Nehemiah Christian Foundation headed by Mrs. Rhoda George opened the Nehemiah house-to-house School with 60 boys and girls.The school is located in Jimmit, Mahaut. In the financial year 1995/96 the government entered into a bring agreementwith the World Bank to fund the Basic Education tidy nominate (BERP). One of the three main objectives of the object was to expand access to secondary education. down the stairs the project, this objective was fulfilled in the co-ed Castle Bruce Secondary School (CBSS) in 1998.TABLE I DOMINICA Academic Secondary Schools, 2002/03 School Year Founded Boys Girls Total post Convent High School 1858 0 493 493 aided Dominica Grammar School 1893 518 281 799 State Wesley High School 1927 0 287 287 assisted St.Marys acade my 1932 420 0 420 Assisted Portsmouth Secondary School 1971 402 435 837 State Dominica Community High School 1975 79 46 cxxv Assisted St. Andrews High School 1979 233 292 525 Assisted Marigot Secondary School 1980 86 59 145 Assisted Isaiah Thomas Secondary School 1981 312 393 705 State SDA Secondary School 1981 108 87 195 Private St. Martins Secondary School 1988 0 306 306 Assisted Good provide Secondary School 1988 380 262 642.State Grand Bay Secondary School 1988 334 343 677 State Nehemiah Comprehensive School 1994 64 73 137 Assisted Castle Bruce Secondary School 1998 266 291 557 State Orion Academy 2003 Private Total 3 202 3 648 6 850 Ministry of Education, Sports and Youth Affairs, 2002/03 The School computer program Several factors impinge on the growing of the course of study in Dominica slavery, colonialism, politics, economics, religion, socio-ethnical biases, parents, teachers and the pupils themselves.In the pre-emancipation era the program that exi sted was of a religious nature. The society was largely illiterate and ignorant. There existed no notion or idea of popular or mass education. With emancipation in 1834, the rudiments of a system of education began to take shape. The limited curriculum was non-scientific and bookishly donnish based on rote and remembrance teaching and learning. By 1868, as the primary system took root the three rs were taught namely reading, composing and arithmetic. The system that was taking shape was one that would provide labourers and servants and no more.At the secondary level, the curriculum furnished for the children of the elite Maths, cognizance, Geography, English, Greek, and Latin. The colonial powers and the local legislatures controlled the educational system. In other words, the ruling elites/classes decided who should be taught, what should be taught, when, how and where. The absolute perform up from start to finish was decided for the learner. In 1899, Agriculture was being promoted as a subject to be taught so that the learner would become an outlandish labourer or worker on an estate or join the ranks of the impoverished peasantry.So agricultural schools were encouraged. In this way the islands would remain as sources of primary agricultural produce. When the British abolished the local legislatures and imposed direct crown colonization rule the curriculum again was being used as a tool around to keep the masses in their place. It limited them to learn the basics and agriculture. Attempts were made to improve education at the end of the root World War (1914-1918) salaries to teachers, payments by results and attempts at compulsory education. The West Indian multitude in Dominica in 1932 urged the region to bark for compulsory education among other things.This failed. In 1957, the ministerial system was brought to Dominica with some serve of authority by the house of assembly. But power still lied with the British parliament. Budgets could be p assed, but had to be approved by Britain. In 1967, Dominica became an associate state with Gt. Britain. whole internal matters were under local jurisdiction, but contradictory affairs, trade and defense lawyers resided with Gt. Britain. Dominica could now influence and shape educational progress, but very little happened. The primary system continued to develop. The high schools became stagnant.The last one to be established was in 1936 (SMA). Thirty-seven years passed before the succeeding(prenominal) one, the PSS was established. By 1978, the curriculum at the primary was now being driven by the Common Entrance Examinations to the detriment of all else. The same thing could be set in motion at the secondary schools. The entire curriculum was driven by foreign international examinations. The foreign element was distant in 1985 when we switched from the Cambridge and London GCE O Levels to the regionally based CXC examinations. But the GCE A Levels still continue to dictate the curriculum at the post-secondary level.In 1998, CXC began to test pilot burner its own A Levels known as CAPE, which pass on shortly replace the English-based GCE A Levels. The School political platform and Examinations The CXC and the GCE curriculum dictate the locus and instruction of secondary education in Dominica. These exams cater for the 30-40% of the ability range of secondary students. The entire curriculum was driven by foreign external examinations. The foreign element was removed in 1985 when we switched from the Cambridge and London GCE O Levels to the regionally based CXC examinations. But the GCE A Levels still continue to dictate the curriculum at the post-secondary level.In 1998, CXC began to test pilot its own A Levels known as CAPE, which will soon replace the English-based GCE A Levels. The HSC, LSC and GCE reign the curriculum of secondary schools since the 1880s. The failure judge were very high at both the O and A Levels. It was also a drain on the scarce resources of the region. The lower limit of 5 O Level subjects were indispensable to move into the sixth form and five subjects were needed of which 2 must be at A Level for university entry. The Caribbean was influenced by educational and curriculum exploitations in brotherhood America and Europe, especially Britain.Revolutionary curricular changes in maths and science were being undertaken in the USA as a result of the Russian success in Sputnik I. In the U. K, the Nuffield Foundation invested heavily in a science development project. In 1969-70, the West Indian Science course of instruction Innovation Project (WISCIP) began at St. Augustine, UWI, and Trinidad. It was a new approach with emphasis on enquiry and experimentation, understanding and constructive thinking. This was introduced in the DGS and the other high schools of the time. During that same period New maths was introduced in the schools curriculum.All five of the secondary schools in Dominica espouse it. The Convent High School had their first O Level candidates in 1971, and the DGS in 1972. Results in all Caribbean schools were not so favourable at first because of the unfamiliarity with the new approaches and topics such as inverses, identities, algebra of sets and matrices, decimalisation and metrification, vectors, inequalities and topology. At first most of the schools used the School Mathematics Project (SMP) books, but these were replaced by the Joint Schools Project (Caribbean edition) series, as part of the CEDO/UNESCO/UWI Caribbean Mathematics Project.The CXC was established in 1972 to serve the Commonwealth Caribbean. The military operation took over 10 years. The CXC was to replace the GCE exams. It would develop syllabi, conduct exams and swerve certificates. This was a form of asserting cultural and intellectual independence from our colonial last(prenominal) and from Britain. Politically, the Caribbean has eschewed integration. There was the West Indian confeder ation as colonies of Britain (1958-1962). It ended in failure due to insularity, nationalism and dependency.With independence, the nations can dictate their educational goals and match these to national needs. In Dominica, we have not had a long history of educational reforms established in law. In 1949 an Education Act was passed to fix and govern the empyrean. This was changed in 1997 when the new Education Act was passed. This was part of an attempt to harmonize education legislation in the eastern Caribbean. In 1995 the Basic Education Reform Project was launched (BERP). The Project had three main objectives 1. to strengthen the management and planning expertness of the Ministry, 2.to enhance the quality of education, and 3. to expand and defend school places. Economically, we live in an mutualist world, a global village. We are partners dicker from a position of weakness. Unequal scathe of trade, onerous foreign debts, trade deficits and balance of payment problems deple te our resources so that our educational cyphers are severely constrained. In general (1999 2004), Dominica spends about 17% of its recurrent budget on education, 1-2% on materials and supplies and about 80% on personal emoluments. New course of study Developments.Primary schools follow a curriculum, which has lately been examineed by the platform Development Unit (CDU). Schools have been provided with curriculum bunks for English linguistic process, Mathematics and General Science for Grades K to 6. curriculum guides for Social Studies, Mathematics, Science and English Language were to become available in kinsfolk 1999 for grades K to 6. A curriculum guide for Social Studies has been prepared for Form 1 at the secondary level. Workbooks for Grades k to 3 for English were to have been made available from September 1999.In addition a curriculum guide for Health and Family conduct covering primary and secondary age ranges is being monitored and supported in schools. A draft national policy for this was presented to locker in August 1998 but has not yet been officially approved. The CDU has planned to review Music, PE, Art and Craft, and Agriculture in 2001 as well as to start writing and production of support materials for pupils and teachers. The revised primary schools curriculum appears to be appropriate at the national level. The main problem appears to be in its delivery.The main need at the primary level for curriculum development is in relation to adapting the teachers guides for multigrade teaching and provision of differentiated activities for all subjects and all classrooms. Dominica does not have a National broadcast and therefore, the curriculum de facto is obstinate by each school and in practice is closely related to the requirements of the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) other external examinations and higher ability students. A balance needs to be struck between the academic and interoperable skills education in the secondary sec tor in any future national curriculum.The Ministry of Education has outlined the following process to arrive at the promulgation and executing of the National plan (NC) National course of instruction Committee (NCC) established in school year 1999/2000 NCC reviews existing curriculum topically and regionally Under the NCC, overthrow squads and Subject Areas are established Development of Syllabi, and program Guides in tenderness Subject Areas class Training of Staff/Subject Team Members Resource Provision First conscription National programme in Core Subject Areas Review of Draft Curriculum Development of Curricula in other subject areas.Establishment of National Norms and Standards for all subjects piloting of National Curriculum in a cross-section of schools Promulgation of National Curriculum by Minister of Education physical exertion by all schools of the National Curriculum as of September 2003 The Secondary Education Support Project (SESP) had been working with the Curriculum Development Unit (CDU) to write and pilot a revised curriculum for Forms 1 to 3 in the core subjects of English, Mathematics, Science and Social Studies, incorporating activities for average and below average ability pupils.Drafts of curriculum guides for Form 1 have been completed and were made available to schools in September 1999. All the guides for the four core subjects were made available in 2001. The CDU also has completed work in Music, Art, Craft, and Agriculture. However, the major curriculum need resides in the consideration of a curriculum which will meet the needs of all students academic, technical/vocational, aesthetic, spiritual, moral and for citizenship and fulfill the ambitions set out in the 1997 Education Act. This would be especially so when Universal Secondary Education is achieved.